The Netherlands is increasingly operating in a “grey zone” between peace and war, as state-backed agencies use hybrid tactics to disrupt society, the Dutch military intelligence agency MIVD warned in its annual report on Tuesday.

“Our country is increasingly confronted with state actors who attempt to disrupt and weaken our society through hybrid attacks,” MIVD director Peter Reesink told broadcaster NOS.

Russia remains a key threat, largely due to Dutch support for Ukraine and the presence of international institutions and tech firms in the Netherlands.

The MIVD said Russia is showing greater risk tolerance, with “more brutal, aggressive or provocative activities” aimed at groups supporting Ukraine, as well as military and logistics hubs across Europe.

Russian hackers have also launched DDoS attacks on political parties and public transport networks to hinder voting during European elections, the MIVD said.

Last year, a Russian group carried out a cyber sabotage attack on the digital control system of a Dutch public service — the first such attack reported in the Netherlands. Another attempted breach of Dutch critical infrastructure was thwarted, the agency said.

The Netherlands, said Reesink, needs to build up its military capacity as soon as possible as both a deterrent and, in the worst case scenario, “to defend the Netherlands and Europe from a Russian attack.”

China is also targeting the Netherlands for espionage, particularly the defence industry. According to the MIVD, the Chinese cyber group Salt Typhoon has gained access to US telecom and government networks, possibly intercepting sensitive data — and European providers may be similarly targeted.

The MIVD is also monitoring extremism within the armed forces. While it found no networks, some (aspiring) personnel have expressed Nazi sympathies or subscribed to anti-institutional conspiracy theories, occasionally alongside pro-Russian views.

The agency said there is no evidence of violent extremism against the military.